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So far so good. But in case you are side-tracked some where, and so long delayed in reaching the desired point that your stock of provision is spoiled. If complete starvation is not the result, your friends will be at least poorly nourished. In center, holding cane, is Dr. Still; on other side of skeleton is Dr. William Smith. As a horse needs strength instead of a spur to enable him to carry a heavy load, so a man needs freedom in all parts of his machinery with the power that comes from the perfection in his body, in order to accomplish the highest work of which he is capable.
Remember the company you have kept before coming here. You come to me with eyes big from belladonna, back and limbs stiff from plaster casts—you have been treated and dismissed as incurable by all kinds of doctors before coming to us, and if we help you at all—we do more than others have done.
No homeopathic practice with its sugar coated pills, must be allowed to stain or pollute our spotless name. Osteopathy asks not the aid of anything else. All it asks is a thorough knowledge of the unerring laws that govern its practice and the rest is yours.
Was Nature ever intoxicated? The St. To and fro there surges a throng of ailing humanity sincere in purpose as the Eastern devotee who kneels at the tomb of Mohammed. But the results accomplished are not visionary or fanciful, they are real and practical. Average issue circulation rose from several hundred in to more than 18, two-years later. There was the laboring man, the business man, and the professional man; there was the working girl, and the society favorite; there was the anxious husband with the invalid wife, the loving mother with her crippled child; there were scores on crutches and in invalid chairs; there were others who were compelled to depend on strong arms and tender hands.
Barker was a Methodist minister from Kansas who had fallen from a train, severely wrenching his neck; he subsequently developed sore eyes and ultimately became blind. Barker claimed to have seen oculists in three states before coming to Kirksville. I felt like toppling over at every step. Christian, the wife of a Baptist preacher, brought her seven-year-old son, who had suffered for three years from what had been diagnosed by two physicians as hip joint disease. They were at once reduced without weights, braces, plaster of Paris, or any other paraphernalia; and now the boy is able to go anywhere on crutches, without his brace, feels no pain, the abscesses having disappeared, and will soon be well again.
Blocker of Dark County, Ohio, was only bothered by an occasional pain in his ankle. Asked by a reporter if he believed in miracles, Mr. Greenwood, linked osteopathy to the aspirations of Midwestern populism. Would you call that class legislation? A monopoly of free gospel certainly. Then is not our medical class legislation as bad?
I hold that if medicine is a science that no legislation is necessary to uphold or protect it. If it is not a science the challenge is open to the world to disprove it. Louis by the improbably coincidental name of A. He argued that every cult, regardless of its methods, professes cures. Osteopathy was simply no different from Christian Science, magnetic healing, and the water of Lourdes.
As to osteopathic theory, it was entirely invalid. Do our studied research in pathology and therapeutics go for naught? Strange is it not that of the thousands of skeletons carefully examined that frequent examples of misplaced bones have not been discovered, if such truly is the cause of all disease?
We see patients daily recovering from sickness and disease in whom no effort has been made to reduce misplaced bones, showing that the causus morbi did not lie in that direction.
Then let him inquire of the patients who tell him in their stories, how many doctors had declared their recovery impossible, and then, and not until then, let him make up his mind as to whether or not osteopathy is a fraud, its practitioners humbugs and its supporters liars. To pay such an army of liars would consume the capital of the state.
If they are hysterical why did not their doctors cure them? The osteopath would not be required to pass any test or attend classes for any set length of time. All of this went for naught.
Indeed, there was little Still or his followers could say to justify what then constituted osteopathic education and standards. From through , three classes had graduated. The length of training varied from nine to eighteen months and consisted of lectures in anatomy, osteopathic principles and technique.
Still believed other subjects were unnecessary. Anatomy, in his view, was the sole medical certainty. There was no need to bother with the theories and speculations of other branches of medicine. This time, the DOs did not face an executive veto. Bells rang and whistles blew. Anything that would make a big noise went. Within a few years there were seven hundred full-time students in attendance.
Among those he found to assist Smith and himself were C. Proctor — , a university graduate who also held a DO; Charles Hazzard — , a university graduate who also held a DO; Carl McConnell — , who after earning his osteopathic diploma received an MD at a homeopathic school; and the three Littlejohn brothers: J. Whereas Still had built his system largely upon the principles and practices of magnetic healing and bonesetting, his new faculty relied upon more reputable sources of knowledge.
In ancient Greece, frictions—a form of massage—were employed to treat a wide range of ailments. Although rediscovered during the Renaissance, it took a minor position in therapy compared to drugging. However, over the course of the next several centuries it would be promoted by a host of distinguished physicians including Gerald von Swieten —72 , who advocated manipulation as a general measure to increase blood circulation. Later in the century, S. Weir Mitchell , as a result of his Civil War hospital experience, relied on manipulation to treat many traumatic nerve and muscle injuries and by was including it when treating neurasthenia, hysteria, and locomotor ataxia.
Pardington migraine; and A. Eccles , constipation. George H. Although the success of massage in treating a number of disorders went virtually unchallenged by other practitioners, it failed to be integrated alongside materia medica in the standard medical school curricula.
This attitude did not necessarily apply to other countries. Hundreds of articles and many books on this system were published during the latter half of the nineteenth century. It also follows that osteopathy must generally work more quickly and easily than massage in such cases as the latter could reach, and that it must succeed in a large class of cases beyond the power of these manual systems, since to this class belong so many disease conditions depending upon some removable obstruction not noticed by them.
In addition, advocates of these two systems provided them with experimental evidence of how manipulation had cured. Zubludowski, for example, found that massage increased electrical contractility of the muscles; Hopadze showed how it sped assimilation of food; Golz provided evidence that it aided the circulation of blood; Mitchell reported that it could produce an increase in red blood cells; and von Mosengeil found that manipulation promoted lymphatic absorption.
To this question they found a partial answer in neurophysiology. In a Scottish physician, Thomas Brown, wrote an article in which he argued that pain about an internal organ could be caused by a disturbed vertebra that shared a common nerve supply. To treat this type of pain, said Hilton, one must only treat the spine, which he did with rest and restriction of mobility. Martin Littlejohn argued by analogy that if referred pain could be produced by displaced vertebrae other remote symptoms, as Still argued, could be caused by them as well.
Furthermore, many contemporary scientists speculated that the nerves had a trophic function—that is, they would directly supply nutrients to body tissues—so it followed that a disturbance of a spinal nerve could materially weaken the organ it supplied. Brown-Sequard — If, for example, a patient was suffering from a bad case of indigestion and there was no discoverable disturbance in segmentally related vertebrae, one could nevertheless relieve the condition by treating the relevant centers.
Still ignored the contradiction. His faculty, however, preferred to face the problem more directly. Each of them accepted the existence and etiological role of microorganisms. If, as they believed, these structural lesions produced derangement of physiologic functions, it would follow that in their presence the body would automatically be put into a state of lowered resistance. Under these assumptions, osteopathic procedures seemed entirely applicable and necessary.
A directory published in listing graduates shows Under such sponsorship the osteopath was formally introduced to the entire community. The system was new and in many areas unheard of. Often the term osteopathy was a handicap; quite a few prospective patients took it to mean that DOs thought all ailments were due to diseased bones or that they only treated fractures and dislocations.
He remained adamant. I asked her if she had put the same question to [her last physician] that she had put to me. She replied that she had not. It took me another hour to explain the difference between osteopathy and Christianity. For one patient I had to insulate the table, as they think this is some form of magnetic treatment. They were afraid to tell of their relief.
Several of them published descriptions that were eloquently worded and simple to understand. As a violin or engine needed tuning or adjustment every so often, so also did the human body. Many are the diseases entirely beyond the reach of the medical attendant that promptly surrender to the ability and the knowledge of the osteopath.
In other words, there is not a single thing that medical men can surpass osteopaths in except. Its theory is most reasonable. But it has a practical side as well as a reasonable theory. Most DOs agreed with Dr. Evans, who observed: The over sanguine osteopath who advertises, writes, and talks constantly about cases that are remarkable for the rapidity with which they have yielded to the osteopathic treatment does himself and the profession an injustice.
People are led to expect miracles. It is wise to explain to them that it will take time to eliminate poisonous drugs from their system and to induce healthy normal action in torpid organs that have long been dependent upon extraneous stimulation.
It is far better to impress this upon them than to tell wonderful stories— no matter how true—of marvelous cures effected in one or two treatments. By the latter method the patient is led to expect the same results in his own case and may be disappointed, for nature, though sure, is sometimes slow.
If, on the other hand, more is accomplished than promised, osteopathy has won a friend that will never falter in allegiance to our system. One problem generated by this arrangement was that patients expected as many sessions within the month as possible, regardless of their ailment. As a result, it became a matter of custom to administer no more than three treatments per week per client.
So-and-so goes to Dr. In a week the patient is so prostrated by the frequent treatment that she is glad to admit she cannot stand so much osteopathy. It is all I can do to get her three times a week which is as much as anyone can stand without becoming debilitated. Mason Pressly and O. It is results that tell. Each issue of the Journal would also contain notices by many DOs of their change of address, often from town to town.
For them, osteopathy was not a sure-paying proposition, and not a few dropped out of practice altogether. Some regarded DOs as harmless quacks whose clienteles would patronize any new healer who happened to arrive in town. If the latter went quietly about his or her own business, there was usually small chance of confrontation. However, the osteopath who arrived in town with much fanfare, making extravagant claims regarding his or her own skill while intimating that the MDs were in league with the undertakers, was simply asking to be prosecuted.
Whenever arrests did take place, the DOs would maintain that jealousy and fear were the prime motivating factors. Once they had begun to prove they were superior doctors, their argument ran, the MDs in selfdefense would have to do all they could to get rid of them. When he arrived in he found himself in the midst of an epidemic of what had been diagnosed by local doctors as diphtheria.
Though his experience to date had been with chronic disorders, Still was soon called upon to treat a victim. After his patient made a rapid recovery following conscientious applications of manipulative treatments to the neck, shoulders, and head, Still was asked to care for upwards of seventy children with reportedly only one fatality as a result.
The State Board of Health, despite his apparent success, authorized his arrest for practicing without a license. In Harry Nelson, DO, who had been practicing in Louisville for about a year, became tired of the threats issued by the Kentucky Board of Health that he had better leave town or prepare himself for incarceration.
Nelson would be dangerous to the health, limbs, and lives of those citizens who might be treated by him in most instances. The following year he brought his case to the Court of Appeals, which reversed the original decision and granted a permanent injunction against the board from preventing any DO from engaging in his profession.
MD representatives argued that the term medicine as found in the various healing arts statutes should be construed in its widest possible sense, while the DOs maintained that it meant the practice of administering drugs—and nothing more.
Physicians in and nearby the town of Chelsea had become upset over the activities of Dr. This prompted the Vermont Medical Association to call upon the legislature for relief. A number of them, including the lieutenant governor, were most pleased. Our family physician advised its immediate removal assuring me that nothing but the knife could remedy the evil, and stating that it would soon assume a malignant form if not removed without delay.
It was a great shock to my nervous system, and I had not recovered from it, when the same trouble appeared in my left breast. I had heard meantime of osteopathy and resolved to try it before again submitting to the knife. I went to Kirksville and was completely cured in six weeks time.
My own eyes saw and my own hands felt the obstruction that caused the trouble in both cases, and I knew very well that the knife was never necessary.
Osteopathy has clearly proven its right to recognition in the healing of cases heretofore declared only curable by the knife, and it is only right that its supporters should sustain its claim.
After hearing her dramatic story and her rebuttals of some of the arguments put forward by the MDs, the legislature passed the measure, and the governor, another osteopathic patient, happily signed it. It stands between me and my body and tells me what kind of doctor I must employ. I know how Adam felt in the Garden of Eden about the prohibited apple.
Nevertheless, in addition to Vermont and North Dakota, thirteen other states had by established laws regulating the new system—Missouri , Michigan , Iowa , South Dakota , Illinois , Tennessee , Montana , Kansas , California , Indiana , Nebraska , Wisconsin , and Connecticut By , of the estimated four thousand DOs in practice, approximately one-half were graduates of these other schools. Entrance standards were nominal. Some colleges, following the American School, limited their instruction to several months of anatomy, osteopathic diagnosis, and therapy, while others took it upon themselves to increase the time necessary for graduation as well as the number of subjects covered.
The teaching staff of these schools was small, generally between three and ten professors depending on the number of students enrolled. In some cases a majority of the instructors did not possess a DO degree or have any previous osteopathic training. MDs who wanted to learn something of osteophathic techniques as an adjunct to their own practice were pressed into teaching some subjects in lieu of part or the whole of their tuition fee.
In almost all cases, MDs, whether they served on the faculty or not, were automatically given advanced standing, allowing them to complete the requirements for their diploma in approximately half the normal time. There is increasing demand for it. No student properly equipped has made a failure of it. The supply is short. This opens up a highway to success. Since they were then denied entrance to all but a handful of regular medical schools, here was an alternative method of becoming a doctor.
In addition to citing the alleged quality of their respective facilities, equipment, and staff, many focused on the environmental conditions of the city in which their school was located.
Brought to Kirksville on a stretcher in , Ward looked to Still for relief from a severe asthmatic condition. After he was restored to health, Ward entered into a business arrangement with his benefactor to learn his methods. Within months after the college opened, however, the two had a falling out, and eventually Ward left town. He relocated in Ohio, enrolling in the medical department of the University of Cincinnati.
After obtaining his MD degree there in , Ward moved back to Kirksville. There, with the help of local businessmen who believed the town was large enough for two osteopathic institutions, he established the Columbian School. Columbian students were therefore taught the principles of drug therapy along with other subjects now found in the expanded American School of Osteopathy curriculum.
After they completed their twenty-month course and received the DO degree, they could enroll for another year of medical and surgical training, upon completion of which they would be granted the MD. This he left to his friends and associates. In February of , a small group of American School of Osteopathy alumni met in Kirksville and decided to establish a national organization for this purpose.
Graduates of other schools were then invited to take part in the planning, and by April they had collectively launched the American Association for the Advancement of Osteopathy, which was renamed and restructured as the American Osteopathic Association AOA four years later. To protect autonomy, it fought for independent boards of registration and examination. Early lobbying campaigns had usually been conducted by individuals speaking for only one segment of the emerging movement, leading to situations such as that in Vermont, which had extended practice rights only to graduates of the American School.
This lack of unanimity often resulted in a poorly constructed compromise or no law at all. Several of the early practice acts placed the regulation of osteopathy under the jurisdiction of existing state medical boards. In some states a DO was added to these agencies; in others no representation was granted. Although osteopaths would be examined alongside MDs, taking the same written tests in such subjects as anatomy, physiology, and chemistry, they were exempted from answering questions concerning materia medica or therapeutics.
In a few states this arrangement seemed to work out satisfactorily for the DOs, as they found they could do nearly as well as the allopaths in passing examinations and becoming licensed. In Iowa, for example, the legislature granted the medical board the power of accrediting osteopathic schools, with only graduates from approved institutions becoming eligible for licensure.
After a cursory look at their catalogs, the board rejected all osteopathic colleges, thereby preventing any DO from legitimately practicing in the state and thus circumventing the intent of the lawmakers.
These individuals, once they had been appointed, would be responsible for testing DO candidates, negotiating reciprocity agreements with other boards, and disciplining errant practitioners. Frequently the societies faced a hard struggle.
During the s and s, when medical practice acts were being reintroduced, several states granted the allopaths, homeopaths, and eclectics separate boards. Some states addressed these problems by abolishing this system and placing representatives of each sect upon a single, allencompassing board, where they all kept a watchful eye on one another.
Every inch of progress made by our profession since its discovery has been contested by them. And after securing representation upon their boards, what is our position? Are we loved any more by them? No, we are still at a disadvantage because they overwhelm us in numbers and ours being unwelcome company, we need not expect many favors. Certainly we shall receive no help to reach out and grasp greater and better things such as must and will come to us with the right kind of encouragement and conditions.
In , of the thirty-nine states that had passed osteopathic practice laws, seventeen provided for independent boards. From E. Booth, History of Osteopathy Accordingly, the profession won for itself a considerable degree of autonomy and legal security. Certain competitive activities— such as cutting tuition, stealing students, and shortening the time necessary to earn a diploma—were working to their mutual detriment.
To stop these practices, each member of the ACO pledged to adhere to clear guidelines covering admissions, attendance, tuition, transfers, and advertising methods and to offer a mandatory two-year course. One of the critical areas of concern was the length of time needed to train and graduate DOs. Certainly the two-year curriculum of twenty months looked meager beside the four-year, thirty-six month program offered by almost all allopathic institutions.
Some believed that laboratory instruction was relatively unimportant. This argument was skillfully answered by Dr. Martin Littlejohn, who, along with his brothers, had left Kirksville in to establish a school in Chicago. They did succeed, but theirs was a struggle to evolve their knowledge as they advanced.
To the busy practitioner, this is no easy matter. There was concern that the new requirement might accelerate this trend. Curiously, the greatest objections were raised by the most solvent of the colleges. The younger Still pleaded for an optional rather than mandatory threeyear course, but the AOA rejected the request. However, they did by a narrow margin decide to give Kirksville an additional twelve-month grace period.
This emboldened all of them to initiate an optional fouryear course. In the Philadelphia school, spurred by recently enacted requirements for college registration in key states like New York, made the extra year compulsory for new matriculants.
By all graduates of approved osteopathic colleges had received instruction equivalent in length to that of their MD counterparts. Its staff recognized that for the JAOA to become a truly professional publication, the quality of its articles on practice, particularly those based on actual case histories, would have to rise above the level then prevalent. Do they know what they fail to cure?
This effort, it was thought, not only would be good experience for the average DO, but would also help to support osteopathic claims. While most of these printed cases were described without the needless bluster, self-advertising, and harangues against the MDs, serious qualitative problems in the reports remained.
Only a small number of examples where manipulation was found to be ineffective were included. Identical in practice to the print version, the online Cuaderno contains the full Audio Program as well as segments from the DVD.
The online Cuaderno also provides students with automatic feedback and scoring of their work. This is the combined, single-volume version that covers the entire book. Tracy D. Terrell late Received his Ph. Magdalena Andrade Received her first B. Upon receiving her Ph. Jeanne Egasse Received her B. Tracy D. Terrell late received his Ph. Magdalena Andrade Received her first B.
Upon receiving her Ph. Jeanne Egasse Received her B. She has taught foreign language methodology courses and supervised foreign language and ESL teachers in training for the Department of Education at the University of California, Irvine.
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